[ae68ff0] | 1 | @c |
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[7d032fc] | 2 | @c COPYRIGHT (c) 1988-2008. |
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[ae68ff0] | 3 | @c On-Line Applications Research Corporation (OAR). |
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| 4 | @c All rights reserved. |
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| 5 | @c |
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[139b2e4a] | 6 | @c $Id$ |
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| 7 | @c |
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[ae68ff0] | 8 | |
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| 9 | @c |
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| 10 | @c This chapter is missing the following figures: |
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| 11 | @c |
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| 12 | @c Figure 1-1 RTEMS Application Architecture |
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| 13 | @c Figure 1-2 RTEMS Internal Architecture |
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| 14 | @c |
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| 15 | |
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| 16 | @chapter Overview |
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[20515fc] | 17 | |
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[ae68ff0] | 18 | @section Introduction |
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| 19 | |
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| 20 | RTEMS, Real-Time Executive for Multiprocessor Systems, is a |
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| 21 | real-time executive (kernel) which provides a high performance |
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| 22 | environment for embedded military applications including the |
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| 23 | following features: |
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| 24 | |
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| 25 | @itemize @bullet |
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| 26 | @item multitasking capabilities |
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| 27 | @item homogeneous and heterogeneous multiprocessor systems |
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| 28 | @item event-driven, priority-based, preemptive scheduling |
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| 29 | @item optional rate monotonic scheduling |
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| 30 | @item intertask communication and synchronization |
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| 31 | @item priority inheritance |
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| 32 | @item responsive interrupt management |
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| 33 | @item dynamic memory allocation |
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| 34 | @item high level of user configurability |
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| 35 | @end itemize |
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| 36 | |
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| 37 | This manual describes the usage of RTEMS for |
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[a94c5a5d] | 38 | applications written in the @value{LANGUAGE} programming language. Those |
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[ae68ff0] | 39 | implementation details that are processor dependent are provided |
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[17a3c69] | 40 | in the Applications Supplement documents. A supplement |
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[ae68ff0] | 41 | document which addresses specific architectural issues that |
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| 42 | affect RTEMS is provided for each processor type that is |
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| 43 | supported. |
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| 44 | |
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| 45 | @section Real-time Application Systems |
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| 46 | |
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| 47 | Real-time application systems are a special class of |
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| 48 | computer applications. They have a complex set of |
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| 49 | characteristics that distinguish them from other software |
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| 50 | problems. Generally, they must adhere to more rigorous |
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| 51 | requirements. The correctness of the system depends not only on |
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| 52 | the results of computations, but also on the time at which the |
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| 53 | results are produced. The most important and complex |
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| 54 | characteristic of real-time application systems is that they |
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| 55 | must receive and respond to a set of external stimuli within |
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| 56 | rigid and critical time constraints referred to as deadlines. |
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| 57 | Systems can be buried by an avalanche of interdependent, |
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| 58 | asynchronous or cyclical event streams. |
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| 59 | |
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| 60 | Deadlines can be further characterized as either hard |
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| 61 | or soft based upon the value of the results when produced after |
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| 62 | the deadline has passed. A deadline is hard if the results have |
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| 63 | no value or if their use will result in a catastrophic event. |
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| 64 | In contrast, results which are produced after a soft deadline |
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| 65 | may have some value. |
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| 66 | |
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| 67 | Another distinguishing requirement of real-time |
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| 68 | application systems is the ability to coordinate or manage a |
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| 69 | large number of concurrent activities. Since software is a |
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| 70 | synchronous entity, this presents special problems. One |
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| 71 | instruction follows another in a repeating synchronous cycle. |
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| 72 | Even though mechanisms have been developed to allow for the |
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| 73 | processing of external asynchronous events, the software design |
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| 74 | efforts required to process and manage these events and tasks |
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| 75 | are growing more complicated. |
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| 76 | |
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| 77 | The design process is complicated further by |
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| 78 | spreading this activity over a set of processors instead of a |
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| 79 | single processor. The challenges associated with designing and |
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| 80 | building real-time application systems become very complex when |
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| 81 | multiple processors are involved. New requirements such as |
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| 82 | interprocessor communication channels and global resources that |
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| 83 | must be shared between competing processors are introduced. The |
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| 84 | ramifications of multiple processors complicate each and every |
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| 85 | characteristic of a real-time system. |
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| 86 | |
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| 87 | @section Real-time Executive |
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| 88 | |
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| 89 | Fortunately, real-time operating systems or real-time |
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| 90 | executives serve as a cornerstone on which to build the |
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| 91 | application system. A real-time multitasking executive allows |
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| 92 | an application to be cast into a set of logical, autonomous |
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| 93 | processes or tasks which become quite manageable. Each task is |
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| 94 | internally synchronous, but different tasks execute |
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| 95 | independently, resulting in an asynchronous processing stream. |
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| 96 | Tasks can be dynamically paused for many reasons resulting in a |
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| 97 | different task being allowed to execute for a period of time. |
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| 98 | The executive also provides an interface to other system |
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| 99 | components such as interrupt handlers and device drivers. |
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| 100 | System components may request the executive to allocate and |
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| 101 | coordinate resources, and to wait for and trigger synchronizing |
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| 102 | conditions. The executive system calls effectively extend the |
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| 103 | CPU instruction set to support efficient multitasking. By |
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| 104 | causing tasks to travel through well-defined state transitions, |
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| 105 | system calls permit an application to demand-switch between |
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| 106 | tasks in response to real-time events. |
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| 107 | |
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| 108 | By proper grouping of responses to stimuli into |
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| 109 | separate tasks, a system can now asynchronously switch between |
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| 110 | independent streams of execution, directly responding to |
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| 111 | external stimuli as they occur. This allows the system design |
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| 112 | to meet critical performance specifications which are typically |
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| 113 | measured by guaranteed response time and transaction throughput. |
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| 114 | The multiprocessor extensions of RTEMS provide the features |
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| 115 | necessary to manage the extra requirements introduced by a |
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| 116 | system distributed across several processors. It removes the |
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| 117 | physical barriers of processor boundaries from the world of the |
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| 118 | system designer, enabling more critical aspects of the system to |
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| 119 | receive the required attention. Such a system, based on an |
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| 120 | efficient real-time, multiprocessor executive, is a more |
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| 121 | realistic model of the outside world or environment for which it |
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| 122 | is designed. As a result, the system will always be more |
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| 123 | logical, efficient, and reliable. |
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| 124 | |
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| 125 | By using the directives provided by RTEMS, the |
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| 126 | real-time applications developer is freed from the problem of |
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| 127 | controlling and synchronizing multiple tasks and processors. In |
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| 128 | addition, one need not develop, test, debug, and document |
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| 129 | routines to manage memory, pass messages, or provide mutual |
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| 130 | exclusion. The developer is then able to concentrate solely on |
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| 131 | the application. By using standard software components, the |
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| 132 | time and cost required to develop sophisticated real-time |
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| 133 | applications is significantly reduced. |
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| 134 | |
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| 135 | @section RTEMS Application Architecture |
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| 136 | |
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| 137 | One important design goal of RTEMS was to provide a |
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| 138 | bridge between two critical layers of typical real-time systems. |
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| 139 | As shown in the following figure, RTEMS serves as a buffer between the |
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| 140 | project dependent application code and the target hardware. |
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| 141 | Most hardware dependencies for real-time applications can be |
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[e070a9db] | 142 | localized to the low level device drivers. |
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[ae68ff0] | 143 | |
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| 144 | @ifset use-ascii |
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| 145 | @example |
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| 146 | @group |
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| 147 | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ |
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| 148 | | Application Dependent Software | |
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| 149 | | +----------------------------------------+ | |
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| 150 | | | Standard Application Components | | |
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| 151 | | | +-------------+---+ | |
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| 152 | | +---+-----------+ | | | |
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| 153 | | | Board Support | | RTEMS | | |
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| 154 | | | Package | | | | |
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| 155 | +----+---------------+--------------+-----------------+-----| |
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| 156 | | Target Hardware | |
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| 157 | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ |
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| 158 | @end group |
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| 159 | @end example |
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| 160 | @end ifset |
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| 161 | |
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| 162 | @ifset use-tex |
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| 163 | @sp 1 |
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| 164 | @tex |
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| 165 | \centerline{\vbox{\offinterlineskip\halign{ |
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| 166 | \vrule#& |
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| 167 | \hbox to 0.50in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 168 | \vrule#& |
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| 169 | \hbox to 0.50in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 170 | \vrule#& |
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| 171 | \hbox to 0.75in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 172 | \vrule#& |
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| 173 | \hbox to 0.75in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 174 | \vrule#& |
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| 175 | \hbox to 0.75in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 176 | \vrule#& |
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| 177 | \hbox to 0.75in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 178 | \vrule#& |
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| 179 | \hbox to 0.50in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 180 | \vrule#& |
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| 181 | \hbox to 0.50in{\enskip\hfil#\hfil}& |
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| 182 | \vrule#\cr |
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| 183 | \multispan{17}\hrulefill\cr |
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| 184 | % to force all columns to desired width |
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| 185 | & \enskip && \enskip && \enskip && \enskip && |
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| 186 | \enskip && \enskip &&\enskip &&\enskip &\cr |
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| 187 | % For debugging columns |
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| 188 | %& \enskip 0&& \enskip 1&& \enskip 2&& \enskip 3&& |
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| 189 | % \enskip 4&& \enskip 5&&\enskip 6&&\enskip 7&\cr |
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| 190 | \strut&\multispan{15}&\cr |
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| 191 | &\multispan{15}\hfil Application Dependent Software\hfil&\cr |
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| 192 | \strut&\multispan{15}&\cr |
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| 193 | &\multispan{2}&&\multispan{8}\hrulefill &\multispan{2}&\cr |
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| 194 | \strut&\multispan{2}&&&\multispan{7}&&\multispan{2}&&\cr |
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| 195 | &\multispan{2}&&&\multispan{7}\hfil Standard Application Components\hfil& |
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| 196 | &\multispan{2}&&\cr |
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| 197 | \strut&\multispan{2}&&&\multispan{7}&&\multispan{2}&&\cr |
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| 198 | &&\multispan{5}\hrulefill&&\multispan{7}\hrulefill&&\cr |
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| 199 | \strut&&&\multispan{3} &&&&\multispan{5}&&&\cr |
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| 200 | &&&\multispan{3}\hfil Device\hfil&&&&\multispan{5}\hfil RTEMS\hfil&&&\cr |
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| 201 | &&&\multispan{3}\hfil Drivers\hfil&&&&\multispan{5}&&&\cr |
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| 202 | \strut&&&\multispan{3} &&&&\multispan{5}&&&\cr |
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| 203 | \multispan{17}\hrulefill\cr |
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| 204 | \strut&\multispan{15}&\cr |
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| 205 | &\multispan{15}\hfil Target Hardware\hfil&\cr |
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| 206 | \strut&\multispan{15}&\cr |
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| 207 | \multispan{17}\hrulefill\cr |
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| 208 | }}\hfil} |
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| 209 | @end tex |
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| 210 | @end ifset |
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| 211 | |
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| 212 | @ifset use-html |
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| 213 | @html |
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[e070a9db] | 214 | <IMG SRC="rtemsarc.png" WIDTH=500 HEIGHT=300 ALT="RTEMS Application Architecture"> |
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[ae68ff0] | 215 | @end html |
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| 216 | @end ifset |
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| 217 | |
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[e070a9db] | 218 | The RTEMS I/O interface manager provides an efficient tool for incorporating |
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| 219 | these hardware dependencies into the system while simultaneously |
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| 220 | providing a general mechanism to the application code that |
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| 221 | accesses them. A well designed real-time system can benefit |
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| 222 | from this architecture by building a rich library of standard |
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| 223 | application components which can be used repeatedly in other |
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| 224 | real-time projects. |
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| 225 | |
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[ae68ff0] | 226 | @section RTEMS Internal Architecture |
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| 227 | |
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| 228 | RTEMS can be viewed as a set of layered components that work in |
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| 229 | harmony to provide a set of services to a real-time application |
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| 230 | system. The executive interface presented to the application is |
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| 231 | formed by grouping directives into logical sets called resource managers. |
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| 232 | Functions utilized by multiple managers such as scheduling, |
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| 233 | dispatching, and object management are provided in the executive |
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| 234 | core. The executive core depends on a small set of CPU dependent routines. |
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| 235 | Together these components provide a powerful run time |
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| 236 | environment that promotes the development of efficient real-time |
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| 237 | application systems. The following figure illustrates this organization: |
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| 238 | |
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| 239 | @ifset use-ascii |
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| 240 | @example |
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| 241 | @group |
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| 242 | +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 243 | | RTEMS Executive Interface | |
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| 244 | +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 245 | | RTEMS Core | |
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| 246 | +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 247 | | CPU Dependent Code | |
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| 248 | +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 249 | @end group |
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| 250 | @end example |
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| 251 | @end ifset |
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| 252 | |
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| 253 | @ifset use-tex |
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| 254 | @c for now use the ascii version |
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[e070a9db] | 255 | @c @example |
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| 256 | @c @group |
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| 257 | @c +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 258 | @c | RTEMS Executive Interface | |
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| 259 | @c +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 260 | @c | RTEMS Core | |
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| 261 | @c +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 262 | @c | CPU Dependent Code | |
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| 263 | @c +-----------------------------------------------+ |
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| 264 | @c @end group |
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| 265 | @c @end example |
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| 266 | @image{rtemspie,4in,3in} |
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[ae68ff0] | 267 | @tex |
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| 268 | @end tex |
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| 269 | @end ifset |
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| 270 | |
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| 271 | @ifset use-html |
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| 272 | @html |
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[13fb305] | 273 | <IMG SRC="rtemspie.png" WIDTH=500 HEIGHT=300 ALT="RTEMS Architecture"> |
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[ae68ff0] | 274 | @end html |
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| 275 | @end ifset |
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| 276 | Subsequent chapters present a detailed description of the capabilities |
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| 277 | provided by each of the following RTEMS managers: |
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| 278 | |
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| 279 | @itemize @bullet |
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| 280 | @item initialization |
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| 281 | @item task |
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| 282 | @item interrupt |
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| 283 | @item clock |
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| 284 | @item timer |
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| 285 | @item semaphore |
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| 286 | @item message |
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| 287 | @item event |
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| 288 | @item signal |
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| 289 | @item partition |
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| 290 | @item region |
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| 291 | @item dual ported memory |
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| 292 | @item I/O |
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| 293 | @item fatal error |
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| 294 | @item rate monotonic |
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| 295 | @item user extensions |
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| 296 | @item multiprocessing |
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| 297 | @end itemize |
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| 298 | |
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| 299 | @section User Customization and Extensibility |
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| 300 | |
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| 301 | As thirty-two bit microprocessors have decreased in |
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| 302 | cost, they have become increasingly common in a variety of |
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| 303 | embedded systems. A wide range of custom and general-purpose |
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| 304 | processor boards are based on various thirty-two bit processors. |
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| 305 | RTEMS was designed to make no assumptions concerning the |
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| 306 | characteristics of individual microprocessor families or of |
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| 307 | specific support hardware. In addition, RTEMS allows the system |
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| 308 | developer a high degree of freedom in customizing and extending |
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| 309 | its features. |
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| 310 | |
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| 311 | RTEMS assumes the existence of a supported |
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| 312 | microprocessor and sufficient memory for both RTEMS and the |
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| 313 | real-time application. Board dependent components such as |
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| 314 | clocks, interrupt controllers, or I/O devices can be easily |
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| 315 | integrated with RTEMS. The customization and extensibility |
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| 316 | features allow RTEMS to efficiently support as many environments |
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| 317 | as possible. |
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| 318 | |
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| 319 | @section Portability |
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| 320 | |
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| 321 | The issue of portability was the major factor in the |
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| 322 | creation of RTEMS. Since RTEMS is designed to isolate the |
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| 323 | hardware dependencies in the specific board support packages, |
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| 324 | the real-time application should be easily ported to any other |
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| 325 | processor. The use of RTEMS allows the development of real-time |
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| 326 | applications which can be completely independent of a particular |
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| 327 | microprocessor architecture. |
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| 328 | |
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| 329 | @section Memory Requirements |
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| 330 | |
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| 331 | Since memory is a critical resource in many real-time |
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[7d032fc] | 332 | embedded systems, RTEMS was specifically designed to automatically |
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| 333 | leave out all services that are not required from the run-time |
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| 334 | environment. Features such as networking, various fileystems, |
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[f3a4c7a] | 335 | and many other features are completely optional. This allows |
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[7d032fc] | 336 | the application designer the flexibility to tailor RTEMS to most |
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| 337 | efficiently meet system requirements while still satisfying even |
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| 338 | the most stringent memory constraints. As a result, the size |
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| 339 | of the RTEMS executive is application dependent. |
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| 340 | |
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| 341 | RTEMS requires RAM to manage each instance of an RTEMS object |
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| 342 | that is created. Thus the more RTEMS objects an application |
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| 343 | needs, the more memory that must be reserved. See |
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| 344 | @ref{Configuring a System Determining Memory Requirements} for |
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| 345 | more details. |
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[ae68ff0] | 346 | |
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| 347 | RTEMS utilizes memory for both code and data space. |
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| 348 | Although RTEMS' data space must be in RAM, its code space can be |
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| 349 | located in either ROM or RAM. |
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| 350 | |
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| 351 | @section Audience |
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| 352 | |
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| 353 | This manual was written for experienced real-time |
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| 354 | software developers. Although some background is provided, it |
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| 355 | is assumed that the reader is familiar with the concepts of task |
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| 356 | management as well as intertask communication and |
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| 357 | synchronization. Since directives, user related data |
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[a94c5a5d] | 358 | structures, and examples are presented in @value{LANGUAGE}, a basic |
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| 359 | understanding of the @value{LANGUAGE} programming language |
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[61389eac] | 360 | is required to fully |
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[ae68ff0] | 361 | understand the material presented. However, because of the |
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| 362 | similarity of the Ada and C RTEMS implementations, users will |
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| 363 | find that the use and behavior of the two implementations is |
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| 364 | very similar. A working knowledge of the target processor is |
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| 365 | helpful in understanding some of RTEMS' features. A thorough |
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| 366 | understanding of the executive cannot be obtained without |
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| 367 | studying the entire manual because many of RTEMS' concepts and |
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| 368 | features are interrelated. Experienced RTEMS users will find |
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| 369 | that the manual organization facilitates its use as a reference |
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| 370 | document. |
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| 371 | |
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| 372 | @section Conventions |
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| 373 | |
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| 374 | The following conventions are used in this manual: |
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| 375 | |
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| 376 | @itemize @bullet |
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| 377 | @item Significant words or phrases as well as all directive |
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| 378 | names are printed in bold type. |
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| 379 | |
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| 380 | @item Items in bold capital letters are constants defined by |
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| 381 | RTEMS. Each language interface provided by RTEMS includes a |
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| 382 | file containing the standard set of constants, data types, and |
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[7e8a1fc] | 383 | @value{STRUCTURE} definitions which can be incorporated into the user |
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[ae68ff0] | 384 | application. |
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| 385 | |
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| 386 | @item A number of type definitions are provided by RTEMS and |
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| 387 | can be found in rtems.h. |
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| 388 | |
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| 389 | @item The characters "0x" preceding a number indicates that |
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| 390 | the number is in hexadecimal format. Any other numbers are |
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| 391 | assumed to be in decimal format. |
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| 392 | @end itemize |
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| 393 | |
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| 394 | @section Manual Organization |
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| 395 | |
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| 396 | This first chapter has presented the introductory and |
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| 397 | background material for the RTEMS executive. The remaining |
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| 398 | chapters of this manual present a detailed description of RTEMS |
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| 399 | and the environment, including run time behavior, it creates for |
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| 400 | the user. |
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| 401 | |
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| 402 | A chapter is dedicated to each manager and provides a |
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| 403 | detailed discussion of each RTEMS manager and the directives |
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| 404 | which it provides. The presentation format for each directive |
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| 405 | includes the following sections: |
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| 406 | |
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| 407 | @itemize @bullet |
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| 408 | @item Calling sequence |
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| 409 | @item Directive status codes |
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| 410 | @item Description |
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| 411 | @item Notes |
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| 412 | @end itemize |
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| 413 | |
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| 414 | The following provides an overview of the remainder |
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| 415 | of this manual: |
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| 416 | |
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| 417 | @table @asis |
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| 418 | @item Chapter 2 |
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| 419 | Key Concepts: presents an |
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| 420 | introduction to the ideas which are common across multiple RTEMS |
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| 421 | managers. |
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| 422 | |
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| 423 | @item Chapter 3: |
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[34ffa99] | 424 | RTEMS Data Types: describes the fundamental data types shared |
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| 425 | by the services in the RTEMS Classic API. |
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| 426 | |
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| 427 | @item Chapter 4: |
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[ae68ff0] | 428 | Initialization Manager: describes the functionality and directives |
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| 429 | provided by the Initialization Manager. |
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| 430 | |
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[34ffa99] | 431 | @item Chapter 5: |
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[ae68ff0] | 432 | Task Manager: describes the functionality and directives provided |
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| 433 | by the Task Manager. |
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| 434 | |
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[34ffa99] | 435 | @item Chapter 6: |
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[ae68ff0] | 436 | Interrupt Manager: describes the functionality and directives |
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| 437 | provided by the Interrupt Manager. |
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| 438 | |
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[34ffa99] | 439 | @item Chapter 7: |
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[ae68ff0] | 440 | Clock Manager: describes the functionality and directives |
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| 441 | provided by the Clock Manager. |
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| 442 | |
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[34ffa99] | 443 | @item Chapter 8: |
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[ae68ff0] | 444 | Timer Manager: describes the functionality and directives provided |
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| 445 | by the Timer Manager. |
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| 446 | |
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[34ffa99] | 447 | @item Chapter 9: |
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[ae68ff0] | 448 | Semaphore Manager: describes the functionality and directives |
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| 449 | provided by the Semaphore Manager. |
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| 450 | |
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[34ffa99] | 451 | @item Chapter 10: |
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[ae68ff0] | 452 | Message Manager: describes the functionality and directives |
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| 453 | provided by the Message Manager. |
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| 454 | |
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[34ffa99] | 455 | @item Chapter 11: |
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[ae68ff0] | 456 | Event Manager: describes the |
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| 457 | functionality and directives provided by the Event Manager. |
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| 458 | |
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[34ffa99] | 459 | @item Chapter 12: |
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[ae68ff0] | 460 | Signal Manager: describes the |
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| 461 | functionality and directives provided by the Signal Manager. |
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| 462 | |
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[34ffa99] | 463 | @item Chapter 13: |
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[ae68ff0] | 464 | Partition Manager: describes the |
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| 465 | functionality and directives provided by the Partition Manager. |
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| 466 | |
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[34ffa99] | 467 | @item Chapter 14: |
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[ae68ff0] | 468 | Region Manager: describes the |
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| 469 | functionality and directives provided by the Region Manager. |
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| 470 | |
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[34ffa99] | 471 | @item Chapter 15: |
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[ae68ff0] | 472 | Dual-Ported Memory Manager: describes |
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| 473 | the functionality and directives provided by the Dual-Ported |
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| 474 | Memory Manager. |
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| 475 | |
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[34ffa99] | 476 | @item Chapter 16: |
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[ae68ff0] | 477 | I/O Manager: describes the |
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| 478 | functionality and directives provided by the I/O Manager. |
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| 479 | |
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[34ffa99] | 480 | @item Chapter 17: |
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[ae68ff0] | 481 | Fatal Error Manager: describes the functionality and directives |
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| 482 | provided by the Fatal Error Manager. |
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| 483 | |
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[34ffa99] | 484 | @item Chapter 18: |
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[ae68ff0] | 485 | Scheduling Concepts: details the RTEMS scheduling algorithm and |
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| 486 | task state transitions. |
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| 487 | |
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[34ffa99] | 488 | @item Chapter 19: |
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[ae68ff0] | 489 | Rate Monotonic Manager: describes the functionality and directives |
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| 490 | provided by the Rate Monotonic Manager. |
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| 491 | |
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[34ffa99] | 492 | @item Chapter 20: |
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[ae68ff0] | 493 | Board Support Packages: defines the |
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| 494 | functionality required of user-supplied board support packages. |
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| 495 | |
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[34ffa99] | 496 | @item Chapter 21: |
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[ae68ff0] | 497 | User Extensions: shows the user how to |
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| 498 | extend RTEMS to incorporate custom features. |
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| 499 | |
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[34ffa99] | 500 | @item Chapter 22: |
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[ae68ff0] | 501 | Configuring a System: details the process by which one tailors RTEMS |
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| 502 | for a particular single-processor or multiprocessor application. |
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| 503 | |
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[34ffa99] | 504 | @item Chapter 23: |
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[ae68ff0] | 505 | Multiprocessing Manager: presents a |
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| 506 | conceptual overview of the multiprocessing capabilities provided |
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| 507 | by RTEMS as well as describing the Multiprocessing |
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| 508 | Communications Interface Layer and Multiprocessing Manager |
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| 509 | directives. |
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| 510 | |
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[34ffa99] | 511 | @item Chapter 24: |
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[ae68ff0] | 512 | Directive Status Codes: provides a definition of each of the |
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| 513 | directive status codes referenced in this manual. |
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| 514 | |
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[34ffa99] | 515 | @item Chapter 25: |
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[ae68ff0] | 516 | Example Application: provides a template for simple RTEMS applications. |
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| 517 | |
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[34ffa99] | 518 | @item Chapter 26: |
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[ae68ff0] | 519 | Glossary: defines terms used throughout this manual. |
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| 520 | |
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| 521 | @end table |
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| 522 | |
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| 523 | |
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